The Endless Frontier(Summary)

Summary of Report

 

SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IS ESSENTIAL

Progress in the war against disease depends upon a flow of new scientific knowledge. New products, new industries, and more jobs require continuous additions to knowledge of the laws of nature, and the application of that knowledge to practical purposes. Similarly, our defense against aggression demands
new knowledge so that we can develop new and improved weapons. This essential, new knowledge can be obtained only through basic scientific research.
Science can be effective in the national welfare only as a member of a team, whether the conditions be peace or war. But without scientific progress no amount of achievement in other directions can insure our health, prosperity, and security as a nation in the modern world.

For the War Against Disease

We have taken great strides in the war against disease. The death rate for all diseases in the Army, including overseas forces, has been reduced from 14.1 per thousand in the last war to 0.6 per thousand in this war. In the last 40 years life expectancy has increased from 49 to 65 years, largely as a consequence of the reduction in the death rates of infants and children. But we are far from the goal. The annual deaths from one or two diseases far exceed the total number of American lives lost in battle during this war. A large fraction of these deaths in our civilian population cut short the useful lives of our citizens. Approximately 7,000,000 persons in the United States are mentally ill and their care costs the public over $175,000,000 a year. Clearly much illness remains for which adequate means of prevention and cure are not yet known.
The responsibility for basic research in medicine and the underlying sciences, so essential to progress in the war against disease, falls primarily upon the medical schools and universities. Yet we find that the traditional sources of support for medical research in the medical schools and universities, largely endowment income, foundation grants, and private donations, are diminishing and there is no immediate prospect of a change in this trend. Meanwhile, the cost of medical research has been rising. If we are to maintain the progress in
medicine which has marked the last 25 years, the Government should extend financial support to basic medical research in the medical schools and in universities.

 

For Our National Security

The bitter and dangerous battle against the U-boat was a battle of scientific techniques—and our margin of success was dangerously small. The new eyes which radar has supplied can sometimes be blinded by new scientific developments. V-2 was countered only by capture of the launching sites.

We cannot again rely on our allies to hold off the enemy while we struggle to catch up. There must be more—and more adequate—military research in peacetime. It is essential that the civilian scientists continue in peacetime some portion of those contributions to national security which they have made so effectively during the war. This can best be done through a civilian-controlled organization with close liaison with the Army and Navy, but with funds direct from Congress, and the clear power to initiate military research which will supplement and strengthen that carried on directly under the control of the Army and Navy.

 

And for the Public Welfare

 

One of our hopes is that after the war there will be full employment. To reach that goal the full creative and productive energies of the American people must be released. To create more jobs we must make new and better and cheaper products. We want plenty of new, vigorous enterprises. But new products and processes are not born full-grown. They are founded on new principles and new conceptions which in turn result from basic scientific research. Basic scientific research is scientific capital. Moreover, we cannot any longer depend
upon Europe as a major source of this scientific capital. Clearly, more and better scientific research is one essential to the achievement of our goal of full employment.
How do we increase this scientific capital? First, we must have plenty of men and women trained in science, for upon them depends both the creation of new knowledge and its application to practical purposes. Second, we must strengthen the centers of basic research which are principally the colleges, universities, and research institutes. These institutions provide the environment which is most conducive to the creation of new scientific knowledge and least under pressure for immediate, tangible results. With some notable exceptions, most research in industry and in Government involves application of existing scientific knowledge to practical problems. It is only the colleges, universities, and a few research institutes that devote most of their research efforts to expanding the frontiers of knowledge. Expenditures for scientific research by industry and Government increased from $140,000,000 in 1930 to $309,000,000 in 1940. Those for the colleges
and universities increased from $20,000,000 to $31,000,000, while those for the research institutes declined from $5,200,000 to $4,500,000 during the same period. If the colleges, universities, and research institutes are to meet the rapidly increasing demands of industry and Government for new scientific knowledge, their basic research should be strengthened by use of public funds.

For science to serve as a powerful factor in our national welfare, applied research both in Government and in industry must be vigorous. To improve the quality of scientific research within the Government, steps should be taken to modify the procedures for recruiting, classifying, and compensating scientific personnel in order to reduce the present handicap of governmental scientific bureaus in competing with industry and the  universities for top-grade scientific talent. To provide coordination of the common scientific activities of these governmental agencies as to policies and budgets, a permanent Science Advisory Board should be created to advise the executive and legislative branches of Government on these matters.The most important ways in which the Government can promote industrial research are to increase the flow of new scientific knowledge through support of basic research, and to aid in the development of scientific talent. In addition, the Government should provide suitable incentives to industry to conduct research, (a) by clarification of present uncertainties in the Internal Revenue Code in regard to the deductibility of research and development expenditures as current charges against net income, and (b) by strengthening the patent system so as to eliminate uncertainties which now bear heavily on small industries and so as to prevent abuses which reflect discredit upon a basically sound system. In addition, ways should be found to cause the benefits of basic research to reach industries which do not now utilize new scientific knowledge.

 

WE MUST RENEW OUR SCIENTIFIC TALENT

The responsibility for the creation of new scientific knowledge—and for most of its application—rests on that small body of men and women who understand the fundamental laws of nature and are skilled in the techniques of scientific research. We shall have rapid or slow advance on any scientific frontier depending on the number of highly qualified and trained scientists exploring it.

The deficit of science and technology students who, but for the war, would have received bachelor’s degrees is about 150,000. It is estimated that the deficit of those obtaining advanced degrees in these fields will amount in 1955 to about 17,000—for it takes at least 6 years from college entry to achieve a doctor’s degree or its equivalent in science or engineering. The real ceiling on our productivity of new scientific knowledge and its application in the war against disease, and the development of new products and new industries, is the number of trained scientists available.

The training of a scientist is a long and expensive process. Studies clearly show that there are talented individuals in every part of the population, but with few exceptions, those without the means of buying higher education go without it. If ability, and not the circumstance of family fortune, determines who shall receive higher education in science, then we shall be assured of constantly improving quality at every level of scientific activity. The Government should provide a reasonable number of undergraduate scholarships and graduate fellowships in order to develop scientific talent in American youth. The plans should be designed to attract into science only that proportion of youthful talent appropriate to the needs of science in relation to the other needs of the nation for high abilities.

Including Those in Uniform

The most immediate prospect of making up the deficit in scientific personnel is to develop the scientific talent in the generation now in uniform. Even if we should start now to train the current crop of high-school graduates none would complete graduate studies before 1951. The Armed Services should comb their
records for men who, prior to or during the war, have given evidence of talent for science, and make prompt arrangements, consistent with current discharge plans, for ordering those who remain in uniform, as soon as militarily possible, to duty at institutions here and overseas where they can continue their scientific education. Moreover, the Services should see that those who study overseas have the benefit of the latest scientific information resulting from research during the war.

THE LID MUST BE LIFTED

While most of the war research has involved the application of existing scientific knowledge to the problems of war, rather than basic research, there has been accumulated a vast amount of information relating to the application of science to particular problems. Much of this can be used by industry. It is also needed for teaching in the colleges and universities here and in the Armed Forces Institutes overseas. Some of this information must remain secret, but most of it should be made public as soon as there is ground for belief that the enemy will not be able to turn it against us in this war. To select that portion which should be made public, to coordinate its release, and definitely to encourage its publication, a Board composed of Army, Navy, and civilian scientific members should be promptly established.

A PROGRAM FOR ACTION

The Government should accept new responsibilities for promoting the flow of new scientific knowledge and the development of scientific talent in our youth. These responsibilities are the proper concern of the Government, for they vitally affect our health, our jobs, and our national security. It is in keeping also with basic United States policy that the Government should foster the opening of new frontiers and this is the modern way to do it. For many years the Government has wisely supported research in the agricultural colleges and the benefits have been great. The time has come when such support should be extended to other fields.
The effective discharge of these new responsibilities will require the full attention of some over-all agency devoted to that purpose. There is not now in the permanent Governmental structure receiving its funds from Congress an agency adapted to supplementing the support of basic research in the colleges, universities, and research institutes, both in medicine and the natural sciences, adapted to supporting research on new weapons for both Services, or adapted to administering a program of science scholarships and fellowships.
Therefore I recommend that a new agency for these purposes be established. Such an agency should be composed of persons of broad interest and experience, having an understanding of the peculiarities of scientific research and scientific education. It should have stability of funds so that long-range programs may be undertaken. It should recognize that freedom of inquiry must be preserved and should leave internal control of policy, personnel, and the method and scope of research to the institutions in which it is carried on. It should be fully responsible to the President and through him to the Congress for its program.
Early action on these recommendations is imperative if this nation is to meet the challenge of science in the crucial years ahead. On the wisdom with which we bring science to bear in the war against disease, in the creation of new industries, and in the strengthening of our Armed Forces depends in large measure our future as a nation.

 

SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IS ESSENTIAL

질병과의 전쟁의 진전은 새로운 과학 지식의 흐름에 달려 있다. 새로운 제품, 새로운 산업 및 더 많은 일자리는 자연의 법칙에 대한 지식에 지속적으로 추가하고 그 지식을 실용적인 목적에 적용해야 한다. 마찬가지로, 침략에 대한 우리의 방어는 우리가 새롭고 향상된 무기를 개발할 수 있도록 새로운 지식을 요구한다. 이 필수적인, 새로운 지식은 기초적인 과학적 연구를 통해서만 얻을 수 있다.
과학은 평화든 전쟁이든 팀의 일원으로서만 국민복지에 효과를 발휘할 수 있다. 그러나 과학적 진보 없이는 다른 방향에서 아무리 많은 성과를 거두어도 현대 세계의 국가로서 우리의 건강, 번영, 안보를 보장할 수 없다.

For the War Against Disease

우리는 질병과의 전쟁에서 큰 진전을 이루었다. 해외 병력을 포함한 육군의 모든 질병 사망률은 지난 전쟁에서 천 명당 14.1명에서 이번 전쟁에서 천 명당 0.6명으로 낮아졌다. 지난 40년 동안 기대 수명은 49세에서 65세로 증가했는데, 이는 주로 유아와 어린이의 사망률 감소의 결과이다. 하지만 우리는 목표와는 거리가 멀다. 한 두 가지 질병으로 인한 연간 사망자 수는 이 전쟁 동안 전사한 미국인의 총 사망자 수를 훨씬 초과한다. 우리 민간인들의 이러한 죽음의 많은 부분이 우리 시민들의 유용한 삶을 단축시킨다. 미국의 약 700만 명의 사람들이 정신 질환을 앓고 있고 그들의 치료 비용은 연간 1억 7,500만 달러가 넘는다. 분명히 아직 적절한 예방과 치료 방법이 알려지지 않은 많은 질병이 남아 있다.
질병과의 전쟁에서 진전에 필수적인 의학과 기초 과학의 기초 연구에 대한 책임은 주로 의대와 대학에 있다. 그러나 우리는 주로 기부금 수입, 재단 보조금 및 민간 기부금과 같은 의과 대학의 의학 연구를 지원하는 전통적인 원천이 감소하고 있으며 이러한 추세에 즉각적인 변화가 있을 가능성은 없다는 것을 발견했다. 한편, 의학 연구 비용은 증가하고 있다. 우리가 지난 25년을 기념한 의학의 진보를 유지하려면, 정부는 의과대학과 대학의 기초 의학 연구에 재정적 지원을 확대해야 한다.

For Our National Security

U보트와의 쓰라리고 위험한 전투는 과학적 기술의 싸움이었고, 우리의 성공의 여지는 위험할 정도로 적었다. 레이더가 공급한 새로운 눈은 때때로 새로운 과학적 발전에 의해 눈이 멀 수 있다. V-2는 발사장을 점령하는 것만으로 대응했다.
우리는 우리가 따라잡기 위해 고군분투하는 동안 다시는 동맹국에 의존하여 적을 저지할 수 없다. 평시에는 더 많은, 그리고 더 적절한 군사 연구가 있어야 한다. 민간 과학자들이 전쟁 중 효과적으로 국가 안보에 기여한 일부를 평시에 계속하는 것은 필수적이다. 이는 육군 및 해군과 긴밀한 연락을 취하면서도 의회가 직접 자금을 지원하고 육군 및 해군이 직접 통제하는 군사 연구를 보완하고 강화할 수 있는 명확한 권한이 있는 민간 통제 조직을 통해 가장 잘 이루어질 수 있다.

 

And for the Public Welfare

우리의 희망 중 하나는 전쟁 후에 완전한 고용이 되는 것이다. 그 목표에 도달하기 위해서는 미국인들의 완전한 창조적이고 생산적인 에너지가 방출되어야 한다. 더 많은 일자리를 만들기 위해서는 새롭고 더 좋고 더 저렴한 제품을 만들어야 한다. 우리는 새롭고 활기찬 많은 기업들을 원한다. 그러나 새로운 제품과 프로세스는 완전히 성장하지 않습니다. 그것들은 기본적인 과학적 연구의 결과인 새로운 원칙과 새로운 개념에 기초한다. 기초 과학 연구는 과학 자본이다. 게다가, 우리는 더 이상 이 과학적 수도의 주요 원천으로서 유럽에 의존할 수 없다. 확실히, 더 많고 더 나은 과학적 연구는 완전 고용이라는 우리의 목표를 달성하는 데 필수적인 하나이다.
어떻게 하면 이 과학적 자본을 늘릴 수 있을까요? 첫째로, 우리는 과학에 훈련된 많은 남성과 여성을 가져야 한다. 왜냐하면 그들에게 새로운 지식의 창조와 그것의 실용적인 목적에의 적용이 모두 달려 있기 때문이다. 둘째로, 우리는 주로 대학, 대학, 연구소인 기초 연구의 중심을 강화해야 한다. 이러한 기관들은 새로운 과학 지식을 창출하는 데 가장 도움이 되고 즉각적이고 가시적인 결과에 대한 압박을 최소화하는 환경을 제공한다. 몇 가지 주목할 만한 예외를 제외하고, 산업과 정부의 대부분의 연구는 기존의 과학적 지식을 실제 문제에 적용하는 것을 포함한다. 지식의 경계를 확장하는 데 대부분의 연구 노력을 쏟는 것은 단과대학, 대학, 그리고 소수의 연구 기관뿐이다. 산업과 정부의 과학 연구에 대한 지출은 1930년 1억 4천만 달러에서 1940년 3억 9백만 달러로 증가했다. 단과대는 2,000만 달러에서 3,100만 달러로 증가한 반면 연구소는 같은 기간 5,200만 달러에서 4,500만 달러로 감소했다. 대학, 대학, 연구소가 새로운 과학 지식에 대한 산업과 정부의 빠르게 증가하는 요구를 충족시키려면, 그들의 기초 연구는 공적 자금의 사용을 통해 강화되어야 한다.
과학이 우리의 국가 복지에 강력한 요소로 작용하기 위해서는 정부와 산업 모두에서 응용 연구가 활발해야 한다. 정부 내에서 과학연구의 질을 향상시키기 위하여, 과학기술인력의 모집, 분류, 보상에 관한 절차를 개정하여 산업계 및 대학과 경쟁하는 데 있어 정부 과학기술국의 현재의 핸디캡을 감소시켜야 한다. 정책과 예산에 관한 이러한 정부 기관의 공통된 과학 활동의 조정을 제공하기 위해, 이러한 문제에 대해 정부의 행정부와 입법부에 자문을 제공하는 상설 과학 자문 위원회가 설립되어야 한다.정부가 산업연구를 추진할 수 있는 가장 중요한 방법은 기초연구의 지원을 통해 새로운 과학지식의 흐름을 높이고, 과학인재의 육성을 돕는 것이다. 또한, 정부는 산업계가 연구를 수행할 수 있도록 적절한 인센티브를 제공해야 하며, (a) 순수익에 대한 경상비용으로서의 연구개발비 공제 가능성에 관한 내부수입법의 현재 불확실성을 명확히 하고, (b) 불확실성을 제거하기 위해 특허제도를 강화해야 한다현재 소규모 산업에 큰 부담을 주고 기본적으로 건전한 시스템에 대한 불신을 반영하는 남용을 방지하기 위해. 또한, 기초 연구의 이점이 현재 새로운 과학적 지식을 활용하지 않는 산업에 도달할 수 있는 방법을 찾아야 한다.

 

WE MUST RENEW OUR SCIENTIFIC TALENT

새로운 과학 지식의 창조에 대한 책임은 자연의 기본 법칙을 이해하고 과학 연구 기술에 숙련된 소수의 남성과 여성에게 있다. 우리는 과학을 탐구하는 고도로 자격을 갖추고 훈련된 과학자들의 수에 따라 어떤 과학적인 개척지에서도 신속하거나 느린 진전을 보일 것이다.
전쟁이 없었다면 학사 학위를 받았을 과학기술 학생들의 적자는 약 15만 명이었다. 이 분야에서 고급 학위를 취득하는 사람들의 적자는 1955년에 약 17,000명에 이를 것으로 추정된다. 왜냐하면 대학 입학부터 이공계에서 박사 학위 또는 이와 동등한 학위를 취득하는 데 최소 6년이 걸리기 때문이다. 새로운 과학 지식의 생산성과 질병과의 전쟁에서의 응용, 그리고 새로운 제품과 새로운 산업의 개발에 대한 진정한 상한선은 이용 가능한 훈련된 과학자의 수이다.
과학자의 훈련은 길고 비용이 많이 드는 과정이다. 연구는 인구의 모든 부분에 재능 있는 사람들이 있다는 것을 분명히 보여주지만, 거의 예외 없이, 고등 교육을 살 수 있는 수단이 없는 사람들은 그것 없이 간다. 만약 가족 운세의 상황이 아닌 능력이 누가 과학에서 더 높은 교육을 받을 것인지를 결정한다면, 우리는 과학 활동의 모든 수준에서 지속적으로 질을 향상시킬 것이라고 확신할 것이다. 정부는 미국 젊은이들에게 과학적 재능을 개발하기 위해 합리적인 수의 학부 장학금과 대학원 장학금을 제공해야 한다. 이 계획은 높은 능력에 대한 국가의 다른 요구와 관련하여 과학의 필요에 적합한 젊은 인재의 비율만을 과학에 끌어들이도록 설계되어야 한다.

Including Those in Uniform

과학 인력의 부족을 메우는 가장 시급한 전망은 현재 제복을 입은 세대의 과학 인재를 개발하는 것이다. 우리가 현재의 고등학교 졸업생들을 훈련시키기 위해 지금 시작해야 한다고 해도 1951년 이전에는 아무도 대학원 공부를 마치지 않을 것이다. 군대는 그들을 샅샅이 뒤져야 한다
전쟁 전 또는 전쟁 중에 과학에 재능이 있다는 증거를 제시하고, 군복을 입은 사람들에게 가능한 한 빨리 그들이 과학 교육을 계속할 수 있는 국내외 기관에서 임무를 수행하도록 명령하기 위해 현재의 제대 계획과 일치하는 신속한 준비를 한 남자들을 위한 기록. 게다가, 국방부는 해외에서 공부하는 사람들이 전쟁 중 연구에서 나온 최신 과학 정보의 혜택을 받을 수 있도록 해야 한다.

THE LID MUST BE LIFTED

전쟁 연구의 대부분은 기본적인 연구보다는 전쟁의 문제에 기존의 과학적 지식을 적용하는 것을 포함하고 있지만, 특정 문제에 대한 과학의 적용과 관련된 방대한 양의 정보가 축적되어 있다. 이것의 대부분은 산업에서 사용될 수 있다. 그것은 또한 국내의 대학들과 해외의 국군 연구소들에서 가르치는 데 필요하다. 이 정보들 중 일부는 비밀로 유지되어야 하지만, 대부분은 이 전쟁에서 적이 우리에게 등을 돌릴 수 없을 것이라는 믿음의 근거가 있는 즉시 공개되어야 한다. 공개해야 할 부분을 선정하고, 공개를 조율하고, 분명히 발표를 독려하기 위해서는 육해공 과학위원회가 조속히 구성돼야 한다.

A PROGRAM FOR ACTION

정부는 우리 젊은이들의 새로운 과학적 지식의 흐름과 과학적 재능의 발달을 촉진하기 위한 새로운 책임을 받아들여야 한다. 이러한 책임은 정부의 적절한 관심사이다. 왜냐하면 그것들은 우리의 건강, 직업, 그리고 국가 안보에 필수적으로 영향을 미치기 때문이다. 그것은 또한 정부가 새로운 국경의 개방을 촉진해야 하는 기본적인 미국 정책과 일치하며 이것이 그것을 하는 현대적인 방법이다. 수년간 정부는 농업대학의 연구를 현명하게 지원해왔고 그 혜택은 컸다. 그런 지원이 다른 분야로 확대돼야 할 때가 왔다.
이러한 새로운 책임을 효과적으로 수행하려면 그 목적에 전념하는 기관의 전체적인 관심이 필요할 것이다. 
의회로부터 자금을 받는 영구적인 정부 구조에는 현재 의학과 자연과학 모두에서 대학, 대학 및 연구 기관의 기본 연구 지원을 보완하기 위해 조정된 기관, 두 서비스 모두를 위한 새로운 무기에 대한 연구 지원에 조정되거나 관리에 적응된 기관이 없습니다 과학 장학금과 펠로우십 프로그램.

그러므로 나는 이러한 목적을 위한 새로운 기관을 설립할 것을 추천한다. 이러한 기관은 과학 연구와 과학 교육의 특수성을 이해하고 폭넓은 관심과 경험을 가진 사람들로 구성되어야 한다. 그것은 장기적인 프로그램이 수행될 수 있도록 자금의 안정성을 가져야 한다. 조사의 자유는 보존되어야 하며, 정책, 인사, 연구의 방법과 범위에 대한 내부 통제를 수행하는 기관에 맡겨야 한다는 것을 인식해야 한다. 그것은 대통령과 그를 통해 그것의 프로그램에 대한 의회에 전적으로 책임을 져야 한다.
우리나라가 앞으로 중요한 해에 과학의 도전에 부응하기 위해서는 이러한 권고안에 대한 조기 조치가 반드시 필요하다. 질병과의 전쟁, 새로운 산업의 창출, 그리고 우리 군대의 강화에서 우리가 과학을 지탱할 수 있는 지혜에 크게 의존한다.